Globalisation in Terms of Social and Economic Trends

Globalisation is not a single phenomenon. It has become a catch-all concept to describe a range of trends and forces changing the social and economic structures of the world. Globalisation may be defined as ‘becoming or making world-wide†, but it has also been referred to as Westernisation. Globalisation as argued by Professor Ruud Lubbers, former Prime Minister of the Netherlands, is considered to have a number of distinct elements to it, which include Economic, Technological, Political, Cultural and Environmental. Economically, greater world integration or globalisation has been greatly encouraged since the Second World War, with the introduction of free trade agreements such as GATT (General Agreement on Tariff†s and Trade). Additionally, regional trade agreements have also been developed, which have included ‘single markets† established by the European Community and NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement). Technologically, the IT revolution has provided a massive improvements in our ability to store and manipulate data using ever more powerful computers. More important however, is the communication abilities of these computers. The Communications Revolution has resulted in the ‘shrinking† of the world. Politically, it was not until the collapse of the former Soviet Block in the late 1980†³s and the general acceptance of the free market (deregulation) and democracy, coupled with the emergence of the ‘Tiger† economies of the Pacific Rim, that the term globalisation has taken on true significance. Culturally, there has been a spreading of Westernisation, or perhaps more accurately Americanisation through the media of films, television and music. Following the Second World War, the USA fearing the rise of communism, actively encouraged and subsidised the world-wide distribution of films effectively advertising (if only subliminally) the benefits of capitalism and the American Dream. As a consequence to the dilution of cultures, France for example has since introduced legislation requiring radio stations to play a minimum of 40% of music originating from or sung in French. Environmental problems are increasingly becoming global problems. Therefore, countries are no longer able to look at environmental issues in isolation. This has been dramatically illustrated for example by the nuclear disaster at Chernobyl, the depletion of the ozone layer and acid rain over Scandinavia. Countries now need to act collectively (as per the Rio Conference) for there to be any chance of reversing or just slowing the damage being caused to the environment. Globalisation of the economy has not been based purely on free trade but also on the free movement of capital. This has promoted direct foreign investments from one country into another (e.g. massive Japanese investment into the EU, especially the UK) which has had a strong influence on the globalisation of the national economies. As an economic phenomenon, globalisation has resulted in a shift away from a world of distinct national economies to a global economy in which production is distributed internationally and finance is able to flow freely and instantly between countries. Multinational businesses have vast economic powers, whilst institutional investors and financial gurus such as George Soros are capable of influencing the currency rates, economic policies, and interest rates of individual nation states (e.g. September 1992, the UK was forced to leave the European Exchange Rate Mechanism). The framework of rules within which economic activity takes place is increasingly defined within the international framework of organisations such as the WTO (World Trade Organisation), the IMF (International Monetary Fund), the World Bank, the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) and G7-8 summits, together with the regional trading blocks such as the European Union and NAFTA. Globalisation is arguably both a cause and a consequence of the information revolution. It is driven by dramatic improvements in telecommunications, exponential increases in computing power coupled with lower costs, and the development of electronic communications and information networks such as the Internet. These communications technologies are helping to overcome the barriers of physical distance. Communities of various types, including NGOs (Non-Government Organisations) which include international interest groups like Amnesty International or Greenpeace, as well as business and labour organisations, now function across national borders. Greenpeace is a prime example: the Shell Brent Spar case illustrated the ability of such internationally organised interest groups to successfully exert commercial and political pressure in multiple countries simultaneously. In turn, social policies affecting individual citizens are becoming more sensitive to international influences, especially when highlighted by the global news media. While globalisation is transferring numerous decisions to the international arena, political and constitutional reforms in many countries involve attempts to decentralise decision-making from central government to more regionally autonomous authorities to cater for a sense of ‘local† identity (e.g. new Labour polices on devolution for Scotland and Wales). These trends appear contradictory, but in practice they are causing the development of new multi-level policy systems. Consequently, borders are becoming increasingly difficult for governments to define and maintain. Therefore, national governments are being forced to redefine their roles, responsibilities and policy relationships. In the same way, multinational companies will find that they will not only have to deal with global trends but also the local laws and customs of their intended markets and manufacturing centres. Globalisation has raised fears that the sovereignty of nation states is being undermined. If sovereignty can be defined as the ability to exercise control without outside interference, then nation states are clearly experiencing diminishing sovereignty. Governments must recognise and work on the assumption that most issues they are required to deal with are affected by or will affect to some extent the international competitiveness of the country. Governments' own responses to globalisation or the search for joint solutions to global problems have further effects upon sovereignty. Participation in international organisations or the adoption of international agreements puts limits on policy options available to governments. This may even require modifications to long-standing domestic policies and practices. Interdependence is narrowing the degree of domestic policy independence. Unilateral action may not be the most effective way to achieve policy goals. For example, the exploitation of resources such as fisheries would inevitably result in the severe depletion, if not destruction, of common stocks (European Common Fisheries Policy) . Many other important policy goals cannot be met by governments acting alone. In combating environmental problems and international crime etc, the interests of individual nations, therefore, may only be protected by collective action. The competition for international investment encouraged by the activities and mobility of multinational enterprises means that most traditional domestic policies such as education and training, taxation, social protection, economic regulation and labour legislation have become international. Even a nation's domestic management policy is a matter of great concern to its trading rivals, because this will ultimately affect a country†s efficiency and consequently its competitiveness. Government policies must increasingly be made more consistent with or competitive against those of their main trading rivals. This was highlighted by Britain†s decision to opt out of the Social Chapter of the Maastricht Treaty. Monetary and fiscal policy decisions can no longer be taken on the basis of exclusively domestic considerations. Currently more than 10 times the amount of finance needed to support the current volume of world trade, is traded daily on the world currency markets. This means that 90 per cent of that activity could be seen as pure currency speculation. This is far in excess of what central banks can hope to influence through their own interventions, especially in the absence of any joint action. In recent years, the Labour Party in the UK, after four successive election defeats has gradually moved its economic policy broadly in line with that of the current Government. This may be seen as an attempt to gain credibility with the UK electorate but perhaps most importantly, to gain credibility with the International Money Markets which will have the opportunity of voting with their funds! The improvement of communications this century from sailing ship to satellite has contributed directly to the globalisation of the world†s economies and political systems. Technological globalisation of Information Technology has moved across cultural and physical barriers, effectively eliminating the capacity of countries (however draconian) to isolate themselves from the world outside. Despite this, Iran has recently banned the use of satellite television, but control will be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve because the information revolution which has also provided e-mail and the Internet has democratised information. It may seem nonsensical for the need to obtain a visa to physically visit someone to whom you are able to talk to electronically on a daily basis. The result is that free speech and civil liberties are becoming increasingly international. Borders will no longer act as boundaries, especially with respect to information (IT has effectively eliminated the capacity of countries to keep out foreign influences, good or bad) and the flow of finance and crime. Therefore, numerous problems can only be tackled in collaboration with other countries. Ultimately, the goal of globalisation is to achieve a world economy reaping the benefits of additional trade and, consequently, mutual dependency (no two countries with a MacDonalds franchise have ever gone to war with each other!), therefore creating more jobs and prosperity for the participating countries. However, some such as Martin Khor, an economist and director of the NGO Third World Network, believe that free trade within a global market will polarise the poorer countries from the richer nations still further. According to some estimates, the industrialised countries, which make up 20% of the GATT membership, will gain 70% of the additional income arising from the implementation of the Uruguay Round of GATT. The globalisation of trade finance and information is perhaps the tip of the globalisation iceberg. The challenge to governments may be made more acute by a host of other internationalisation†s under-way, which include areas such as crime and population movement (economic refugees). Even if it is considered by some to be less than desirable, the increasing globalisation of the world seems unavoidable. In the long term, little may be gained by nation states resisting the impacts of globalisation, which may ultimately prove to be ineffective and counter-productive. To conclude, the ever-improving technology and consequently communications available to businesses, have enabled the creation of a global economy of production and finance, enabling industry to make use of territorial divisions, playing one country or trade-block off against another to maximise subsidies, savings in taxes, avoidance of anti-pollution regulations and guarantees of political stability and favour. With this, a new political structure is emerging with national sovereignty being an ever-looser concept (illustrated by the gradual and continuing integration of individual nation states into the European Union), which is contributing to the emergence of a phenomenon described by Robert Cox as ‘macro-regionalism†. He considers there to be three macro-regions in the making: Europe based on the European Union; an Eastern Asian sphere centred around Japan; and a North American sphere centred around the USA and looking to embrace Latin America. Perhaps the emergence of these macro-regions is part of a natural evolution towards a truly global state?

Personal Income Tax System In Malaysia

A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer that known as an individual or legal entity by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxation is a compulsory levy that the government of a country will finance their expenditure by imposing charge to the persons, individuals, businesses and other bodies to allows the government provide money needed for them to run their operation and to achieve economic objective of the government. Tax is actually not meant to be paid by all people but focuses towards some class of people.As for personal income tax, it need to be paid by the person who earns income up to certain amount and for corporate tax, it imposed on the corporate entity that makes profit from the businesses. In achieving the economic objective, government will take some action such as reduction in taxable person income by the amount paid as the interest on home mortgage loans which will generates more jobs , encourage public to purchase a local produce, reducing inflation and discourage the consumption of certain goods.In Malaysia tax system, it comprises of corporate and personal income tax, custom duty and local tax. The personal income tax is liable for the individual who has income that derived from Malaysia or received in Malaysia from outside Malaysia for a year of assessment. The tax will be imposed to the resident and non-resident individual in different ways.The resident individual will subject to income tax derived from Malaysia and income received in Malaysia for outside Malaysia whereas non-resident individual will be subject to income tax accruing in or derived from Malaysia. In contrast, non-resident is subject to tax at a flat rate of 25%. In additional, income that received by an individual in Malaysia which income is derived from outside Malaysia is exempted from tax with effect from the year of assessment 2004.Under section 4 of Income Tax Act 1967, income that is su bject to tax comprises of Section 4(1)(a) which is gains from a business, Section 4(1)(b) which is gains from an employment, Section 4(1)(c) which is dividends, interest or discounts, Section 4(1)(d) which is rent, royalties or premiums, Section 4(1)(e) which is pension, annuities or other periodical payment which are not falling under any of the foregoing paragraph and lastly under Section 4(1)(f) gains that not falling under any of the foregoing paragraphs. Besides that, non-resident individual are alsosubject to tax of the amount paid in consideration of a service rendered by the person or employee for the use of property of any plant, machinery or other apparatus purchased from such person. Under capital gains, it will be tax in the form of real property gains tax. This tax is arising from disposal of real property in Malaysia.Real property gain tax is known as tax on disposal of shares in real property companies which owns shares defined value of such asset not less than 75% of the company's total tangible assets.Starting from 2010, disposal of real properties that are held for 5 years and below are subject to real property gain tax which the tax rate is 5%. In contrast, for the employment income, employer is required to deduct tax monthly from their employee’s remuneration and submit it to the Inland Revenue Board of Malaysia.For corporate income tax, resident companies are subject to tax on income accruing in or derived from Malaysia. Income that received in Malaysia from outside Malaysia is exempted from tax except for the companies that involved on the business of insurance, banking, sea or air transportation.Non-resident companies are subject to tax on income accruing in or derived from Malaysia only. Incomes that are derived from outside Malaysia which is foreign income will be non-taxable income. Business income of non-residents is subject to tax once it derived through a permanent establishment in Malaysia.There is a self-assessment in the tax system in Malaysia which required individuals to file and pay their tax based on the time requirement. An individual must file and pay their tax if they has a chargeable income for a year of assessment and has no chargeable income for the year of assessment.An individual who has a chargeable income for the year of assessment, they required to furnish a return for the immediately preceding year and have furnished a return for the immediate preceding year. Under Income Tax Act 1967 of Section 2 describe that royalty as any sums paid as right to use the artistic, patents, copyright, design, trademarks, films where such films are to be used in Malaysia. A person who is liable to pay a royalty that has a Malaysian source to an individual who is not known to him to be a resident in Malaysia and to a company, partnership or any other body of persons who does not carry a business in Malaysia.Besides that, the royalty is said to be derived from Malaysia if the responsibility for the paym ent lies with a resident of Malaysia and the responsibility for the payment lies between the government and state government itself.There is a term of local tax in Malaysia which refers to as the property tax collected by the local authorities for the provision of service to the residents. The property tax is levied on all property such as agricultural, factories, residential and shops located in the areas under jurisdiction of local authorities.Furthermore, the rate of the tax collected is different from one local government to another and it is also different in form of the property rights. Question 1(B): Examine the taxation needs of the present times (locally and internationally).So far Malaysia is using an income based direct tax for the purpose of taxation of goods and services in the country and with international transactions. So, isn’t it better for the country to switch to a consumption based indirect taxation?First of all, what is the difference between direct and indirect tax. The difference between a direct and indirect tax is a challenging issue. It depends on whether it is viewed on the economic way or on the legal way. In this case the interest is given to the economic view only.Based on economic perspective, a direct tax will refer to any levy that is both imposed and collected on a specific group of people or organizations. An example of direct taxation would be income taxes that are collected from the people who actually earn their income.In the opposite, indirect taxes are collected from someone or some organization other than the person or entity that would normally be responsible for the taxes; in other words, an indirect tax is technically an income tax levied against people, corporations, and other legal entities.A sales tax, for instance, would not be considered a direct tax because the money is collected from merchants, not from the people who actually pay the tax (the consumers). A goods and services tax in Malaysia (GST), a v alue added tax, was scheduled to be implemented by the government during the third quarter of 2011.Its purpose is to replace the sales and service tax which has been used in the country for several decades. The government is seeking additional revenue to offset its budget deficit and reduce its dependence on revenue from Petronas, Malaysia's state-owned oil company.They estimated to four-percent the tax rate in order to replace a sales-and-service tax of between five and ten percent. The Goods and Services Tax Bill 2009 was tabled for its first reading at the Dewan Rakyat (the lower house of the Malaysian parliament) on 16 December 2009.It was delayed amid mounting criticism. The government responded by asserting that the tax on oil income will not be sustainable in the future. National Consumer Complaints Centre head Muhammad Sha’ani Abdullah has said, â€Å"The government should create more awareness on what the GST is.The public cannot be blamed for their lack of understa nding, and thus, their fears†. Sha’ani says that the GST will improve accounting, reduce tax fraud, and facilitate enforcement of the upcoming Anti-Profiteering Act.Muslim Consumer Association of Malaysia leader Datuk Dr. Ma’amor Osman said the GST could help end dishonest business practices, but expressed concern about how the tax would be applied to medical products and services. A group leading the campaign against the GST, Protes which objects to the GST because of concerns about its effects on low-income Malaysians, cancelled a planned protest but has stated that they will continue to agitate against the legislation Difference between Malaysian taxation and other countries, they need to harmonize.Most of the countries in the world currently use income based taxation. Those countries use two systems for taxation purpose: territorial or residential. Malaysia is one of the few countries in the world using territory based taxation. The tax is applied mainly over local income, in other words, income from a source inside the country. Malaysia operates under a Self-Assessment System (SAS) and income is taxed on a territorial basis.Income tax in Malaysia is imposed on income accruing in, or derived from, Malaysia except for income of resident companies carrying on a business of air or sea transport, banking or insurance, which are taxed on a worldwide basis. Foreign-source income received in Malaysia is not taxable.In the residential system, residents of the country are taxed on their worldwide income (local and foreign). This difference of tax systems may overlap some time, giving rise to a taxation issue. Some taxpayer may be taxed more than once.There is another group, the United States which applies tax based on citizenship. There will be taxation conflict at the international level. For instance Malaysia and Singapore have a tax agreement in order to avoid double taxation for the same person and the same income between the two countries.B ased on the preceding, the taxation system in Malaysia should be reviewed in order to simplify the international transactions as well as multinational operations between the country and others. This could help to ease the business transactions both locally and internationally.Taxation used as a tool to attract investors which useful to note that the Malaysian Government, in trying to attract foreign direct investment, is amiable to consider pre-packaged incentives, Factors such as the size of investment, level of spin-off, employment opportunities, and technology transfer, whether of national and strategic importance will play a role for granting of the incentive. Malaysia is experiencing an increasing inflow of investors from around the world because of various reasons. One of the main reasons is the tax incentive provided by the government to attract foreign capital and know-how.At this point the country is doing very well to gain competitive attractiveness. The tax legislature in Malaysia keeps updating the tax law very often to follow the country’s development need. Switch tax policy is a need as in a multi-stage, broad-based Goods and Service tax (GST) has been announced by the Malaysian Government to replace the existing single stage sales tax and service tax. The implementation date remains unannounced at this juncture. The Malaysian tax specialists deemed more beneficial to make this switch.Experts also have argued that complexities due to timing and inflation adjustment should be avoided. To do so, the authorities need to switch the taxation system from an income based one to a consumption based one. Under such a system all business purchases would be deducted immediately.Borrowing in excess of investment would be added to income, and lending would be subtracted; the resulting tax base would be consumption. Through the tax saving resulting from expensing, the government, in effect, becomes a partner in all investments; the revenues it subsequen tly receives are best seen as the return on its investment.A consumption-based tax imposes no burden on income from marginal investments, because the private investor keeps all of the income relating to his share of the investment. As a result, such a tax does not favour present consumption over saving for future consumption, as the income tax does.Some economists view the flat tax as an alternative that is even simpler than consumption-based taxation but would achieve similar economic effects. It works by exempting most capital income from taxation at the individual level that is, only labor income is taxed.This proposal, like consumption-based taxation, suffers from the loss of  progressivity those results when the tax on most capital income is eliminated. No country uses either of these consumption-based direct taxes. To sum up, the Malaysian authorities has some changes to make in order to improve its own tax system and support the economic growth of the country.The current ta x system is not bad or unproductive, but just to improve through the establishment of a tax policy that is more or less similar to at least the neighbouring countries or least extend the bilateral and multilateral tax agreement with the business partners, as well as the foreign investors.It is also highly advisable deepen the analysis about the implementation of the consumption based taxation to determine whether the switch could be beneficial. Question 1(C): Discuss whether system of tax on goods and services is now timely and appropriate for Malaysia.Goods and services tax (GST) is known as a consumption tax based on the value-added concept. It imposed on sales of goods and services in every production. The tax consumption which the indirect tax charged towards importations and on the value added to goods and services sold by one business to another, or to the end consumer.The new tax system of GST is considered as more efficient tax system. The implementation of GST replaces the current Malaysian service tax and sales tax. Sales tax is a form of indirect taxation which imposed on consumers and collected by business entities while service tax is a form of indirect tax imposed on specified services called as taxable services when the services are provided to the consumer at the time. There are lots of arguments arrived on the introduction of GST in Malaysia especially from various parties who is the taxpayer whether it burden the peoples when being implement.GST have more comprehensive, transparent tax system. It inclusive of the manufacturing and distribution stages as well as providing a tax credit claim for GST paid on business inputs while the sales tax is imposed only at the manufacturing stage when the goods are manufactured or imported.Thus, the GST will overcome the various weaknesses inherent in the present consumption tax system such as double tax, leakages thru transfer pricing and more. The government implement GST as part of their tax reform prog ramme.The objective of this new system, GST is to enhance the capability, effectiveness and transparency of tax administration and management. GST covers all types of goods & services sold to Malaysian & non-Malaysian residents except for common commodities.Government expected that the consumers will have benefit from the price reduction in most of the goods and services which has cheaper services. As a consumer, the GST will affect us as the prices of goods and services which currently have little or no taxes will increase slightly.Although there will be slightly increase in term of pricing, the government also has decided that 40 basic goods and services will be exempted from the GST such as basic foodstuff, residential accommodation, education, health services, communication, water and electricity, public transportation, hardware and maintenance and more.There are various types of businesses that charged to GST. GST is charged and collected on all taxable goods and services produ ced in the country including imports where they need to pay the GST at the time of importation.To business supplying the good and services, they need to pay within one month at the end of taxable period, it depending towards the classification that done by the GST authorities. Thus, businesses registered under GST can charge and collect GST.The social and pricing impact studies conducted by the Ministry of Finance indicated that the suitable GST rate is in the range of 4% of value added to good and services at each stage of production. Value added in this system basically is the mark-up in arriving at the selling price of a product and service.The rate is indicated as a standard rate which is expected to give benefits and to reduce the unduly burden of the rakyat and consumers especially to whom that fall in the lower income group. A business that have annual turnover that is more than RM500, 000 needs to register for GST, this is to ensure that the small businesses are free from GS T. The registration can be done by manually or online within 28days from the end of the month where the threshold is reached.Towards businesses that are not reached the threshold, they can voluntarily apply to be registered under the GST and the businesses must remain in the system for at least 2 years followed in the policy. If the government implement it in Malaysia, they will provide a sufficient time for business and industries to make them ready as GST is the new tax system.It will be around 18 to 24 months as various businesses have different types of primary activities in their businesses. Lots of preparation need to be done including preparing their business computer system, hardware and software to get ready for this implementation.Who will responsible to handle the GST accounting and GST taxation as it involved setting up business records, calculation of GST taxes and more. Training is needed either done by the government or by sending the staff for external training as th is will increase the rate of readiness towards this implementation.In additional, the issues on transitional of GST tax need to be study as to avoid the double taxation and disruption. Therefore, they need to understand the detailed rules and consider how GST would apply to their own business operations to avoid any problems occur in future after the system is being implemented.Corruption is not a rare thing in Malaysia as businesses has already included corruption prices in goods & services. How does that not reflect additional costs to consumers? Therefore, the government need to take step in controlling the prices.They need to ensure that the businesses do not take advantage of the GST implementation to increase prices of goods to make excessive profits. A Heavier fines and penalties will be imposed to make sure that the businesses comply with the rules and procedures formulated. Towards dealing with the issues relating to non-compliance and fraud, various approaches will be used by the government.A risk assessment programme will be used to identify types of businesses and persons with high tendency to commit non-compliance and fraud. Moreover, a comprehensive audit programmes is one of the programme that being used to all business and this programme also will be used in the system to fight non-compliance and fraud cases.Thus, a business records and accounts need to be audit by independence auditor to give a true and fair view of the financial statement. Prime Minister has guaranteed that there is no inflation but with the introduction of GST, the chain of passing the cost will end up usually at the hands of consumers.The multiple stage tax of GST would rise up the final consumption price which might lead to inflation in short while. Malaysia economic would be more conservatives and tided to move forward for low income workers with a high living cost that can be seen in present time.A good approach can be seen when the government learn and get good referenc es from countries that impose GST such as Singapore and Thailand before implemented the tax scheme. Last but not least, the result of GST implementation could not be seen in this current time but they need to ensure that the GST does not burden the people, especially the lower-income group.As a business taxpayer they need to be alert and aware regarding this new implementation. Organised seminar or workshop need to be attend to have a better understanding and at the same time will reduce any conflict occur. GST awareness and education programmes need to be conducted on an on-going basis until the GST is implemented and the answer from the survey can help the government to make decision and a proper preparation need to be done as in computer system or in other medium that GST will be used in future. Therefore, the government need to give businesses ample time to be ready for GST implementation.

Police corruption Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Police corruption - Research Paper Example It will also point out different types of corruption, examples of cases and some measures being taken by the law enforcement bodies to curb corruption. The known types of corruption occur on different scales, involving different positions of power and also varying in magnitude. Although most states have taken steps to reduce corruption by splitting their governments into executive, legislative and judiciary arms, it is still rampant within the police, which is under the executive arm. Police corruption refers to the specific misconduct by police officers with the intention of realizing personal benefits, including financial and career advancements, by practices that abuse power such as soliciting for bribes, protecting organized prostitution and drug cartels, bearing false witness and prosecuting falsely. Corruption is detrimental to any police force because it is a crime and costs them their integrity and public image. Generally, most corruption practices can be categorized under ei ther petty corruption, grand corruption or systemic corruption, and further classified into their specific types (Mishra, 2006). The differences are rooted in the involved participants, the norms violated by the corrupt act, the wider context in which the corrupt act takes place and its purpose, motive or outcome. It is on such analytical distinctions that the origins and consequences of corruption are explored and tackled. Occurring within government norms and established social structures, petty corruption takes on the smallest level and form, and involves a small number of participants. It thrives in developing countries where government officials are poorly paid and involves exploiting personal connections and giving small bribes to obtain quick services and favors. Grand corruption occurs at top government levels in ways that require large subversions in economic, legal and political systems of a state. Grand corruption does not bear its significance in the involved amount of m oney as much as it does on the level at which it takes place, which is the policy formulation level. Systemic corruption occurs primarily by taking advantage of a process’ or organization’s weakness. Unlike petty corruption which exploits occasional opportunities, systemic corruption is an essential and integrated aspect of the political, social and economic system. Because it is encouraged by factors such as a culture of impunity, monopolistic powers, low pay, discretionary powers and conflicting incentives, systemic corruption is embedded in a broader situation that promotes its sustenance. Characterized by embezzlement, extortion and bribery, it forms a situation where key state processes and organizations are routinely used and dominated by corrupt groups and individuals, leaving people with no options to dealing with the corrupt officials. Police corruption is exhibited in the inappropriate conduct and actions they take in connection with the official duties and r esponsibilities expected of them. Discrimination and miscarriage of justice are largely part of it (Sherman, 1974). Education levels and personalities of the officers involved are significant contribution factors, but the culture of police agencies also plays considerable roles. Misconduct can be predicted by education, where better educated officers are prone to fewer complaints. Police corruption is also promoted by unenforceable laws that govern moral

Answer the following questions in one paragraph each Assignment

Answer the following questions in one paragraph each - Assignment Example special and that the United States wanted to show their might over the Soviet Union in that only one atomic bomb could have caused Japan to surrender and advocate for respect of international law by all (The New York Times, n.d). According to â€Å"Morality Reduced to Numbers† by Holt, the doctrine of double effect allows the use of methods that can bring harm to a small number of people for the purpose of saving many lives. This doctrine applies to the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki where many innocent Japanese citizens lost their lives. Although the bombings caused some deaths on the military, most of those who died were innocent children, women and men. This was the United States’ decision to end the war which could cause more deaths than what was witnessed in the two cities. It also is explained that the attacks made Japan to surrender and this prevented further destructions of lives as it has been explained that the Japan military had organized to invade the United States. However, many people have had different opinions whether that was the only way to stop and make Japan to surrender (Holt, 1995). In â€Å"The Biotech revolution† (2012), Dr. Michio Kaku explains the negative future developments that are going to be encountered by human. Kaku explains that technology causes some problems on human health that can be long term. The health effects are as a result of the impact of the Atomic bombs. Kaku explains that the elements from atomic bomb chemicals are going to cause future problems that will affect the children born. The New York Times. (1995). HIROSHIMA; Justified Bombings? A Survivors Reply. Retrieved on 16th May 2014 from

Capital Budgeting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Capital Budgeting - Research Paper Example Firstly, capital expenditures require large expenditures of funds. Secondly, firms must find out the best approach to repay and raise these funds. Third, majority of the decisions of capital budgeting include a long-term assurance. Finally, the timing of the capital budgeting decisions is significant. When the firms raise large amount of funds, they need to consider the financial markets more attentively because the cost of capital is directly related to the current interest rate. In short, capital budgeting is the means of conducting cost-benefit analysis (Scribd, 2011). The requirement for important information and analysis of the alternatives of capital budgeting have inspired the development of a sequence of models to help firms in making the "best" allocation of resources. The extent to which the capital budgeting plays a significant role within the firm is determined by the following factors: The capital budgeting process must take into consideration the nature of investment proposals, for example, mutually exclusive or independent proposals. Individual proposals are those which are calculated individually and more than one proposal can be accepted or rejected. There are a number of capital budgeting techniques that firms can employ. These techniques do not always lead to the same accept-reject decision, thus it is essential to make a decision of what a good capital budgeting technique looks like. A perfect Capital Budget technique should be: There are two types of capital budgeting techniques namely sophisticated techniques and unsophisticated techniques. Although both the techniques use cash flows as their initial point to get to the result from which the ultimate decision can be taken, the main difference between the two is that sophisticated techniques take time value of money into account whereas the same is not in case of unsophisticated techniques. Sophisticated techniques include

PR Paper contrast & compare on Twain & Thoreau Essay

PR Paper contrast & compare on Twain & Thoreau - Essay Example According to Thoreau in the book â€Å"Where I Lived, and What I Lived For,† the world is but a faà §ade that is ever being manipulated by the mass media and other personalities to suit their selfish interest. Just like the way the Germany confederacy was in perpetually transformation before the war such that a German national could never tell at any given time its boundaries, ‘reality’ as we know it is also involved in an unending cycle of metamorphosis (Thoreau, 2006). Even the multiplicity of the so-called internal improvements is just but a faà §ade that only complicate life further. While Thoreau thinks that there is always an escape route from these lies camouflaged as realities and developments, a route that can enable a person to experience reality that is devoid of any manipulation, Mark Twain thinks that these kinds of lies camouflaging themselves as realities characterize our lives, at times even spicing it up and therefore indispensable in our lives. In fact, Thoreau idea of what we call reality in our daily life is something is a creation of a number of tools the prominence of them all being the mass media which continuously elongated itself the responsibility of shaping people opinion. According to Thoreau, even what we call progress in our daily life is just a creation of the mass media and therefore unrealistic. Contrary to Mark Twain, Thoreau believes that there is nothing that can be gained from this distortion of reality that surrounds our life. Thoreau even goes out of his way to blame the so-called reality by the mass media for wasting precious time that people can use to attend to serious things that adds value in their life. Mark Twain is of a different view. According to him the ‘reality’ that we perceive is only a faà §ade that disappears after some time, however, despite this act of disappearing it most importantly spice-up our life.

Business article (Auto Bailouts) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business article (Auto Bailouts) - Essay Example However, expending some financial assistance using the money coming from the taxpayers does not directly address the main factors why most of these large-scale businesses fail to cope with the challenges that usually arise during economic decline and slow growth. This is the main reason why most of the Americans oppose the idea of auto bailout. Based on a national poll survey, â€Å"six out of 10 Americans oppose using taxpayer money to help the ailing of major U.S. auto companies. (Steinhauser)† Upon analyzing the historical effects of auto bailout in the U.S. auto industry, it is clear that shredding out billions of dollars from the U.S. taxpayers will not solve the declining U.S. economy. Aside from the fact that extending a large portion of collected tax would be unfair to most Americans who will not receive any direct benefits from the auto bailouts (Steinhauser), extending large sum of government funds on U.S.-based automobile companies would only provide the people with temporary solution. Without focusing on the importance of implementing organizational re-engineering and restructuring, there is no way for the automobile companies to survive the financial crisis even if the government provides them with financial assistance. Extending auto bailout to car makers is not a good option since providing them with excessive amount of financial assistance would only impede further improvements in their management and business practices of the local companies. Instead, one of the best solutions that will enable the major automobile companies to survive the global financial crisis is to shoulder the short-term negative consequences of having limited financial resources in order to restore the companies’ long-term viability (Mitchell). Aside from negatively affecting the business practices and management behind the large-scale automobile companies, allowing the U.S. government to grant auto

Potential and Actual Effects of Political Events on Trade Essay

Potential and Actual Effects of Political Events on Trade - Essay Example The alignment is such that the economic activities of people are improved or that self-interest is created leading to lack of development. Political activities in various countries such as in France and Germany have had significant impacts both to the society and to the production process. In Afghanistan for instance, most of the distribution and trade events are interrupted due to substantial collisions between the politicians and their parties. However, this depends on the way such activities are conducted. In other regions, the events are so peaceful and no interference in the security is witnessed, leading to improvements in the economic sectors. Political activities in any given state are characterized my rallies, forums, banners, large audiences of people and sometimes fights, insecurity and other inhumane acts (Deutsch & Coleman, 2010). A country in the Middle East such as Afghanistan may face different potential and actual effects in the trading sector in the event of politic al upraising. These effects may be diverse and even spread to influence other neighboring countries with which it sources goods and services leading to low economic output. Potential and Actual Effects of Political Events on Trade Sector in Afghanistan The potential effects influence different issues within the trade sectors such as the distribution, production, exports and even the consumption of goods and services. The outcomes fall in different categories involving economy, environment, governance, administration and even corruption. Patronage- politics influences the stands and powers of an individual especially if such an individual has a high standing in the government. This is the favor given to supporters and involves changes in the administration official to those such a power wants. It normally taken as payment to the supporters and majorly a form of corruption where the people elected in the offices lack competence and skills. Political events cause patronage and influenc es trade through improper management and low output in the activities. Poor management of resources arises because most officials are selected for loyalty rather than ability and mainly from a particular group (Janis & Mann, 2007). Political results therefore determines in most cases the officials in the government, and this is evident in Romania a state in Europe where rapid changes of officials in the public sector took place once a new government was formed. Corruption- Political activities lead to introduction of officials sometimes with less skill or even lacking integrity. In the trading sector, corruption becomes a disease leading to economic distortions through direction of resources for public investments to capital projects for individuals. An increase in the bribes and kickbacks is observed, and the public officials increase the technical complexities of projects so as to obtain funds. As a result, investments are falsified and the prices of conducting business rise due t o risks of detection, costs of negotiating with officials, illicit payments and risks of breach. In such cases, competition is blocked, and inefficient firms take charge of the market distorting trade on the overall. Insecurity- political events are accompanied by riot from opposing groups or even disagreement by people on a particular candidate. Still, opposition of the elected power may arise leading to

Summarize an approved scholarly article regarding a biblical book Assignment

Summarize an approved scholarly article regarding a biblical book - Assignment Example The next aspect is divine filiation of the monarch. Indeed, both David and Jesus are called a Son of god. Then there is a clear messianic status of the monarch: while David is praised as the Messiah, Jesus is the Messiah. The fourth aspect is centrality of Jerusalem: all major events of both lives take place in Jerusalem. For example, David proclaimed this city as the capital of the new kingdom, while Jesus was crucified in this city. Another aspect is centrality of the Temple. Indeed, the life of David is firmly connected to the erection of the Temple. On the other hand, Jesus preaches to the people from the Temple. The sixth point of comparison is the emergence of the international empire. Thus, David is known as a ruler who was able to conquer different nations and bring them under the power of Jerusalem. The name was done by Jesus, but in terms of spiritual teaching. Finally, the people thought that both David and Jesus would have eternal rule. In other words, they were regarded as leaders until the end of days. The author points out that many times in Luke-Acts, the Evangelist shows that the kingdom of David should be considers in close connection to the earliest book of the Old Testament, namely Genesis. First of all, the Solomonic temple which is the central building in life of David should be seen as microcosm. Indeed, the Scriptures say that the Lord agrees to give strength to the house of David if the latter creates house for God. Furthermore, the Temple was deliberated designed to remind of the Eden which people left in the beginning of times. For example, it was set on a hill with a river flowing next to it. Secondly, there is a strong parallel that is drawn between Adam and David. They both are referred to as second only to God which implies their great importance for the world. Moreover, each of them is granted with the universal dominion over all the things in the world. Thus,

Crime and Prostitution Essay Example for Free

Crime and Prostitution Essay Prostitution is known as the oldest profession in the world, however, many states in the U.S. outlaw it. The textbook definition of prostitution is the act or practice of engaging in sexual acts for money (Prostitution, Macmillan 805). Nevada is the first in the United States to legalize prostitution. Although the long term effects of legalized prostitution is uncertain, the short term effects have been economically beneficial. Prostitution should be legalized because not only could it financially benefit the country, but it could also reduce crime. There are many reasons why prostitution is illegal in 49 U.S. states today. First, and foremost, many people feel that prostitution should stay illegal in order to preserve morality. Parents do not want their children to grow up thinking that prostitution is acceptable. Worse yet, parents do not want to hear their children say, When I grow up, I want to be a prostitute. Christianity also looks down upon prostitution because according to their beliefs, the act of sex is only to be done when a man and a women are in love and married. Monogamy is to be practiced in the marriage, and any violation of this is considered a sin. Another reason why the preservation of morality is so important is that peoples morals shape the future of a nation. Many people feel that if prostitution is legalized, then its long term effects would be detrimental to the.

Comparison of Responses to Immigrants: France and UK

Comparison of Responses to Immigrants: France and UK A comparison/contrast between social security benefits available to immigrants coming to live in France and immigrants coming to live in the United Kingdom. In the first instance, it is important to point-out that social security benefits available to citizens and residents of France and the United Kingdom are already widely different. The taxes paid by ordinary citizens in France are on average 20% higher than those paid by residents of the United Kingdom, and the government therefore takes charge of a broader range of social security benefits such as, for example, in health care; glasses and contact lenses are reimbursed 100% in France, unlike in the United Kingdom. It is therefore not surprising that immigrants arriving in France are given a wider range of social security benefits than those arriving in the United Kingdom. This said, the range of social security benefits available are similar in both countries, if varying in quality. They include; health-care, education, to use public services such as police and emergency services, pensions, redundancy pay, job seeker’s allowance and working tax credits. The right to belong to a workers union, a political party and to an efficient public transport system are also rights but do not necessarily fall under the social security benefits category in the sense we will be exploring here. By law, these are inalienable rights, that can also be called human rights, that all residents and citizens of European countries are entitled to, whatever their race, religion or country of origin. Immigrants however, who in many cases are not citizens, residents, or sometimes even in a country legally, are in an uncertain position when it comes to social security benefits which is worth analysing to understand it’s full complexity. France and the United Kingdom have varying attitudes when it comes to immigration, and this has influenced the way in which their respective governments allocate social security benefits. France, for example, is famous among immigrant populations for it’s lenience towards immigrants and general openness to the arrival of new populations and ethnic groups. This transpires in their social security benefit allocation; newly arrived immigrants on any part of the French territory are entitled by law to the same benefits as any other French citizen if they are registered as residing in France, have a ‘carte de sà ©jour’ and are not illegal immigrants. This question of illegality is one we shall explore further, but it is worth mentioning now as without legal status, social security benefits are out of the question on both countries. Children of immigrants have a right to be educated in French schools and must, by law, be registered at a school in their area as soon as they arrive if they are under the age of sixteen. Children of immigrants, in this respect, are more protected under the French system than their parents, and their rights to social security benefits are more easily applicable. If an immigrant is declared as temporarily residing in France for work, and is under contract to a foreign company (the situation changes if it is a French company), the worker must by law be covered by the social security benefits of their employer and are therefore not entitled to French social security benefits. This is however a very specific restriction and is not applicable to immigrants brought from their countries to work for French companies, who are responsible for the welfare of their workforce. France is also more subject than the United Kingdom to European rules and regulation regarding immigration, although such a sensitive subject is still, until further notice, under the principal control of the specific country’s government. Contrastingly, the United Kingdom’s attitude to the rights of arriving immigrants to social security benefits is rather different. Firstly, it is important to point out that the United Kingdom is a far smaller country than France, territory speaking, which puts higher pressure on its housing and services infrastructures and industries when high concentrations of immigrants arrive. Also, the onus for finding work and justifying their reason for being in the United Kingdom rests entirely on the immigrants, with far less help from the government available than in France. Also, where the rights of the individual are concerned, it can take up to seven year for any one person already living in the United Kingdom to be granted residency or nationality, which limits the right to vote of newly arrived immigrants both in national and local elections. Without being a ‘resident’ in the United Kingdom it is harder to find a job, somewhere to live, and subsequently apply for al l kinds of benefits. In a broad sense, it is possible that because it is harder to get into the United Kingdom and obtain English nationality, immigrants have a harder time claiming benefits which legally are theirs for the asking. Perhaps what we can take away from this is that the benefits themselves are not necessarily vastly different, but that the ease with which they can be obtained varies widely. Income support benefits for immigrants are in stark contrast when allocated in both the United Kingdom and France. Firstly, it is important to note that in France the ‘allocation chaumage’, which is equivalent to the Jobseeker’s allowance, is substantially higher than in the United Kingdom and continues to rise every year. Immigrants are entitled to it once their residency papers are in order and they have signed-up at their local job centre, but because it is often less profitable to work than to remain on the allowance, there is little incentive for them to actively look for work in France. In the United Kingdom, laws have been in place for some time to prevent this from happening; the job seeker’s allowance is only given if the applicant can prove her is she is actively looking for work. If they turn down more than a certain number of job offers, the allowance can be removed, providing an additional incentive. France has recently passed several laws in t he Assemblà ©e Nationale to remedy this, and it is hoped it will help reduce the number of immigrant on jobseeker’s allowance, reducing overall the cost of immigration to the State. Asylum seeking and refugee status is an area where benefits available to immigrants in both France and the UK are comparable. The Migration Watch UK website defines asylum status as: ‘appeals to the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal against decisions of the UK Border Agency which are adverse to the applicant.’[1] Both countries follow European guidelines when it comes to sheltering political refugees, England judges being particularly sensitive at the moment to escapees from Mugabe’s oppressive regime in Zimbabwe, and France a historical ally of the Dalai Lama and therefore home to many exiled Tibetan monks. That said, a recent controversial declaration by a senior government official regarding lawyer so ‘so called’ asylum seeker were abusing the human rights system simply to provide social security benefits for illegal immigrants. There are similar cases in France but they are significantly less high-profile. Finally, it is important to state that, both for the United Kingdom and for France, an illegal immigrant with no identification, or national insurance number will be able to access very few social security benefits. There are organisations in both countries which are there to provide help such as food, shelter and legal aid to those in the direst poverty, but their ability to assist is limited. The credit crisis will undoubtedly render the situation of illegal immigrants even harder in both countries, making them even less likely to have access to our social security benefits. This is evident through news headlines in the recent months, such as this one from The Times; ‘Immigration to be cut as unemployment soars.’[2] Yes, immigrants come to Europe to profit from the social security benefits, but it is also the arrival of new immigrants in both France and the United Kingdom which will enable us to pay for our social security in the future. Indeed, one of the biggest comparisons between the French and English social security systems is that they are both in deficit. There is in fact not enough money to go around as the populations of both countries age, then retire, and no longer make contributions to the tax system but in fact use our tax money to draw their pensions. Young immigrants coming to work will be taxed on their earnings and help to pay a substantial part of the social security benefits. This is why, in both France and the United Kingdom, there have been motions for mass legalisation of illegal immigrants so that they become a taxable work-force. Neither country, it must be said, has the resources to control and expulse all illegal immigrants, so making them tax-payers and enabling them to apply for social security benefits seems like the best solution. Bibliography Ditch, John. Introduction to Social Security: Policies, Benefits, and Poverty (London, Routledge, 1999) Rachel Sylvester, Richard Ford, and Alice Thomson. ‘Immigration to be cut as unemployment soars’. The Times, 18th October 2008. The Concise Oxford French Dictionary, ed. by Abel Chevally (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934) â€Å"UK benefits system linked to immigrant workers says report† http://news.migrationwatch.org.uk/2008/01/uk-benefits-sys.html (22nd November 2008) Vatz Laaroussi, Michà ¨le. Le familial au coeur de limmigration: les stratà ©gies de citoyennetà © des familles immigrantes au Quà ©bec et en France (Paris: LHarmattan, 2001). â€Å"30 ans de maà ®trise des flux migratoires; la politique d’immigration (1974 2005)† http://www.vie-publique.fr/politiques-publiques/politique-immigration/index/ (22nd November 2008) 1 [1] â€Å"UK benefits system linked to immigrant workers says report† http://news.migrationwatch.org.uk/2008/01/uk-benefits-sys.html (22nd November 2008) [2] Rachel Sylvester, Richard Ford, and Alice Thomson. ‘Immigration to be cut as unemployment soars’. The Times, 18th October 2008.

The Miracle of Life Essay -- Personal Narrative Pregnancy Labor Essays

The Miracle of Life The miracle of life is something most of us will experience in our lifetime. The process before actually giving birth, I think is the hardest part of the entire scenario of child bearing. This amazing experience is something that can make the individuals who are involved in the process change in so many ways. The process of giving birth, for those of you who have not experienced or will never experience it, can be very hard, long and rewarding all at the same time. To give a better description, think of eating a fireball. At first the fireball is tame and calm, but just when you least expect it the fireball becomes hot. Then, when the hot sensation becomes too much, the sweet flavor of the fireball breaks through. I am a person who can't sit still over long periods of time. I had planned to start my maternity leave two weeks before the baby's due date but I refused to stay home just because I was 9 months pregnant. I figured I if I stayed home, doing nothing, I would constantly be reminded of my back pains, a 6to 8 pound human being doing aerobics in a small compacted space, and the frequent use of the restroom. Instead of being reminded of all these things, I decided to work until the day I gave birth to help keep the agony of being pregnant from my mind. After months and months of eating for two, constant visits to the doctors, and my husbands teasing, the moment of truth finally hit me. I was actually going to give birth to this tiny individual who had been living in my stomach for the past nine months. I was finally going to meet the creature that had been kicking me and keeping me from a great nights sleep. The one thing from this experience that I have learned is that nobody will ever be able ... ...ural. An epidural, is the best thing I pregnant women could ever ask for. The pain of the contractions simple vanished and left me feeling as happy as a clam. Just imagine having laughing gas and that is how happy and relaxed I felt. The funny thing about the administration of the epidural was that it didn't hurt when it was administered. The pleasure of not feeling anymore pain was more than I could ever ask for. After what seemed like an eternity of pushing, sweating, and pain I was able to give birth to my son. My entire labor lasted about twelve hours, but to me it seemed like a life time. The pain I experienced was well worth it, because I was able to give life to another person. After all that I had experienced for those long nine months many people have asked if I would do it again. My reply to all who have asked me is, â€Å"of course I would, in a heart beat.

Catcher in the Rye :: essays research papers

The Catcher in the Rye---What was He Thinking?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nash K. Burger wrote a review of the book, The Catcher in the Rye, which was published in the New York Times on July 16, 1951. In his review, Burger idolizes the book, calling it â€Å"an unusually brilliant first novel†. Burger feels that this book has wonderful language and portrays the typical teenager. He thinks that Holden has a cheerful disregard and that there is nothing wrong with him. He also feels that Holden’s mistakes are not caused by him, but by the adult world. This book is totally opposite of how he categorizes it. In fact, Holden has is far from typical. The language he uses is preposterous and he always jumps to assumptions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Burger’s first thought that Holden is a typical teenager is way off. Typical teenagers do not flunk out of school after school. An example of this is, â€Å"They kicked me out. I wasn’t supposed to come back after Christmas vacation on account of I was flunking all four subjects and not applying myself and all.† Typical teenagers also do not go and stay in a hotel and hire a hooker, â€Å"When I opened the door, this prostitute was standing there.† and then ask her, â€Å"Don’t you feel like talking for a while?† The last thing he does that is totally untypical of a teenager is to propose to a girl and then start calling her names. If this is someone’s idea of typical, they need to re-evaluate typical teenage life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Next Burger says that the book is told in wonderful language. This book is absolutely, without a doubt, filled with very vulgar language. There is absolutely nothing wonderful about Holden’s language. Every other thought that comes out of his head is filled with curse words. A good example of this would be when he went to Phoebe’s school and he found â€Å"fuck you† written on the wall. This is Holden’s reaction to the profanity, â€Å"It drove me damn near crazy. I thought how Phoebe and all the other little kids would see it, and how they’d wonder what the hell it meant, and then finally some dirty kid would tell them -- all cockeyed, about it and maybe even worry about it for a couple of days. I kept wanting to kill whoever’d written it. I figured it was some perverty bum that’d sneaked in the school late at night to take a leak or something and then wrote it on the wall. I kept picturing myself catching him at it, and how I’d smash his head on

The Birthday Party by Pinter as a Comedy of Manner :: essays research papers

AS 'COMEDY OF MANNER' Once asked what his plays are about, Pinter lobbed back a phrase "the weasel under the cocktail cabinet", which he regrets has been taken seriously and applied in popular criticism. Despite Pinter's protestations to the contrary, many reviewers and other critics still find that Pinter's "remark", though "facetious"(teasing), is still an apt description of his plays. Now the Phrase "comedy of menace" is often applied to it and suggests that although they are funny, they are also frightening or menacing in a vague and undefined way. Even as they laugh, the audience is unsettled, ill at ease and uncomfortable. Pinter?s own comment clarifies it: "more often than not the speech only seems to be funny - the man in question is actually fighting a battle for his life". (What situations appear funny to us? But in fact for the character concerned is a terrifying experience.) Now the question arises that does Pinter?s work really go in accordance to the ?comedy of manners. A critic says: "Pinter restored theatre to its basic elements: an enclosed space and unpredictable dialogue, where people are at the mercy of each other and pretence crumbles. With a minimum of plot, drama emerges from the power struggle and hide-and-seek of interlocution. Pinter's drama was first perceived as a variation of absurd theatre, but has later more aptly been characterized as 'comedy of menace,' a genre where the writer allows us to eavesdrop (spy) on the play of domination and submission hidden in the most mundane of conversations. In a typical Pinter play we meet people defending themselves against intrusion or their own impulses by establishing themselves in a reduced and controlled existence. Another principal theme is the unpredictability and elusiveness (ambiguity) of the past." The general setting of the play is naturalistic and mundane, involving no menace. However one of Pinter?s greatest skills is his ability to make an apparently normal and trivial object, like a toy drum, appear strange and threatening. Pinter can summon forth an atmosphere of menace from ordinary everyday objects and events, and one way in which this is done is by combining two apparently opposed moods, such as terror and amusement. Another technique that Pinter uses to create an atmosphere of menace is to cast doubt on almost everything in the play. One method of doing this is to have a character give a clear and definite statement and then have him flatly deny it later on.

Comparing Criminal Justice Systems: Venezuela vs Denmark

Background Denmark The small, European country of Denmark lies just on the border of the North and Baltic Seas upon the peninsula of Germany, also flanked by Norway and Sweden. It is less than twice the size of Massachusetts at 43,094 square kilometers. The weather is generally temperate, humid and overcast with windy winters and cool summers. Denmark’s natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, chalk, stone, gravel and sand. Denmark has a population of 5,484,723 with 65. 9% between the ages of 15 and 64 years old. The population growth rate is 0. 95%; they have a birth rate of 10. 71 per 1000 people and a death rate of 10. 25. The migration rate is 2. 49 per 1000 people and the residents have a life expectancy of 78. 13 years. The nationality of the people of Denmark is Dane, or Danish. The Danish ethnic groups include Scandinavian, Inuit, Faroese, German, Turkish, Iranian, and Somali. As far as religious beliefs, 95% of Denmark are Evangelical L utheran, 3% other Christian including Protestant and Roman Catholic and 3% Muslim. The main languages spoken are Danish, Faroese, Greenlandic and German and the predominant second language is English. The Danes have a 99% literacy rate and the school life expectancy is 17 years. (CIA: World Fact book) Venezuela Venezuela is a much larger country of 912,050 square kilometers and population 26,414,816 in Northern South America bordering the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. It lies flush with Columbia, Brazil and Guyana. It is slightly more than twice the size of California with a tropical climate—hot and humid. 63. 8% of the population is between the ages of 15 and 64 years old. The population growth rate is 1. 98% with a birth rate of 20. 92 per 1000 population and 5. 1 deaths per 1000 population. The net migration rate is -. 084 per 1000 population and their life expectancy from birth is 73. 45 years. Their nationality is Venezuelan and their ethnic groups are Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German, African, and indigenous people; Spanish is the official language. 96% of Venezuela is nominally Roman Catholic, 2% Protestant and 2% other religions entirely. 93% of Venezuelans are literate and the average school expectancy rate is 12 years. Law Denmark Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, with the Queen fulfilling the role of head of state, and the government formed out of the parliament. Denmark has a unicameral (single chamber) parliament, with deputies elected through a system of proportional representation, though each member also represents a constituency. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Demark) The political system of Denmark is a multi-party structure, where several parties are represented in the Parliament. Danish governments are most often minority administrations, governing with the aid of one or more supporting parties. This means that Danish politics are characterized by inter-party compromising. Since 1909 no single party has had the majority of parliamentary seats. A popularly elected parliament, Folketinget, governs the country and the prime minister, the nation's chief political officer, usually comes from the ranks of the majority party. The Faroe Islands and Greenland come under nominal rule from Denmark. (Visit Denmark) The capital of Denmark is Copenhagen and the chief of state is Queen Margrethe II since January 14, 1972, and Heir Apparent Crown Prince Frederik, the eldest son of the monarch. The head of the government is Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen since 27 November 2001. The monarch is hereditary, however following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or the leader of the majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the monarch. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the monarch for life terms. Criminal offenses are defined either in the special part of the Criminal Code or in separate statutes. The general conditions for imposing criminal penalties are found in the general part of the Criminal Code which also apply to separate statutes. The sanctions described in the general part of the Criminal Code are the same whether the criminal offense consists of a violation of the Criminal Code or of separate statutes. The substantive Danish criminal law is monistic, meaning that violations of the law never have been divided into categories like felony/misdemeanor, crime/delicts or the like. It does not mean, however, that major offenses are treated in the same manner as petty offenses in all respects. (Ravn, Lene) The age of criminal responsibility is 15 years old. According to the Criminal Code the mere possession of narcotic drugs is criminalized. However, the law is not enforced regarding possession of very small amounts meant for the drug addict's own consumption. Possession and selling is penalized in a special law on drugs containing the possibility of imprisonment for a period of up to two years. Serious cases of trafficking of drugs are punished with imprisonment within a range of one month to ten years according to the Criminal Code. Venezuela Venezuela’s political system is a Federal Republic. The current Venezuelan constitution was adopted in 1999. Important changes were made regarding the structure of the government as well as in human rights and community participation. Since the approval by referendum of this constitution, the government consists of five branches, the Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Citizen and Electoral. The Executive Branch: The President and his cabinet. The President is elected by universal, direct and secret ballot for a six-year term. The President may be re-elected for one additional consecutive term only. Legislative: One chamber National Assembly composed by 165 deputies elected for a five- year term. Deputies may be re-elected for up to one additional consecutive term. Judiciary: The new constitution renamed the Supreme Court as the Supreme Tribunal of Justice. Justices are nominated by the civil society. Final appointment requires the approval of at least two thirds of the legislative branch. The Citizens Branch: Created to safeguard public ethics, to ensure respect for the principle of legality in the Administration, and to assume the defense of human rights. The Ombudsman or Defender of the People, the Attorney General and the Comptroller General form this power The Electoral Branch: This authority is independent from other Government Branches and is appointed by nominations from the civil society. Administrative Division: 22 states, 1 federal district and the federal dependencies. State Governors are elected for a four-year term and may be re-elected for one additional consecutive term only. Most Venezuelans are Roman Catholic. The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion. All faiths have churches and people may worship freely. Venezuela’s people result from the mingling of European, Amerindian, and African cultures. Traditionally a haven for people of all origins, Venezuela received large waves of immigrants from Europe following World War II and from other Latin American and Caribbean nations during the 1970s. (Embassy) The Venezuelan chief of state and head of government is President Hugo Chavez Frias since February 3, 1999. The Executive Vice President Ramon Alonzo Carrizalez Rengifo since 4 January 2008. The Venezuelan Penal Code distinguishes between crimes, punishable by imprisonment, and misdemeanors (faltas), punishable by arrests or fines. In the Penal Code, crimes are classified by major types, as follows: * Crimes against national sovereignty and national security — treason; crimes against national and state government; crimes against international law * Crimes against liberty — crimes against political, personal, religious freedom, etc. Corruption — these are defined in a special anti-corruption law, enacted in 1982 * Crimes against the administration of justice — simulating crimes, false testimony, collusion, concealment, etc. * Crimes against public order — conspiracy to commit crime; incitement to crime; manufacture and carrying of weapons, etc. * For gery — false currency; forged seals, fiscal stamps, documents, passports, licenses, etc. * Crimes against public and private interests — arson, causing floods, etc. gainst public health and nutrition * Crimes against public morals and the family — rape, seduction, prostitution, corrupting minors, adultery, bigamy, etc. * Crimes against persons — homicide, battery, abortion, abandoning children, slander, etc. * Crimes against property — theft, robbery, extortion, kidnapping, fraud, etc. (Birkbeck, Christopher) Until 1998, the age of criminal responsibility was 18. In that year, a new Children's Code (Venezuela, 1998c) established criminal responsibility for adolescents (ages 12 to 17). However, the adolescent criminal justice system is administratively separate from the adult criminal justice system. Adolescents who turn 18 during adjudication or sentencing continue under the adolescent justice system. (Birkbeck) Police Denmark The state police is a department of the Ministry of Justice. There is no longer a municipal police and the military police only has authority over soldiers according to the Military Criminal Code. Denmark is divided into 54 police districts (excluding the Faeroe Islands and Greenland), each headed by a local chief of police. The National Commissioner reports to the Minister of Justice. For administrative purposes the police are subdivided into plain-clothes criminal investigators, uniformed patrolmen, traffic police officers, immigration police, and other categories. (Ravn) The common police of Denmark consist of 12 districts each managed by a director and two minor districts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands, run by a chief of police. The mission statement of the Danish police is as follows: The police must work in order to ensure security, safety, peace and order in the society. The police must promote this purpose through preventive, helping and enforcing work. In addition to the regular districts, there are three other organizations that work outside the common police. Rigspolitiet is the state national police for Denmark. Politiets Efterretningstjeneste, also called PET, is the national security intelligence agency of Denmark. The agency focuses solely upon domestic security while foreign intelligence operations are handled by Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste – an intelligence branch under the Danish military. The stated overall purpose of PET is to prevent, investigate and counter operations and activities that pose or may pose a threat to the preservation of Denmark as a free, democratic and safe country. The three main duties of the PET are counter terrorism, counter extremism and counter espionage. Politiets Aktionsstyrke (AKS) is the Special Forces unit of the Danish police; a national SWAT team. It is meant to handle extraordinarily difficult or life-threatening criminal situations, such as terrorism, hostage situations, and kidnapping. It also deals with emergency rescue situations that would be too dangerous for others to handle. The AKS holds responsibility for all anti-terror and counter-terrorism missions in Denmark. (Wikipedia) New recruits are required to be in good physical condition; good personal and economic condition, and should have achieved good grades in school. New recruits are usually required to be between 21 and 29 years of age, of Danish citizenship or have applied for Danish nationality/citizenship, and without any convictions. The basic training of police personnel takes 3 years. The training comprises both school education and training of a more practical nature. School education, which consists of 2 courses of 8 months each, takes place at the Police Academy in Copenhagen. The rest of the training time is spent on the job. The Police Academy also presents special courses and leadership courses. All chiefs of police hold a master's degree in law from a university. (Ravn) Venezuela The national Venezuelan police are the Cuerpo Tecnico de Policia Judicial, or PTJ. They were founded almost immediately after the overthrow of Dictator Marcos Perez Jiminez in 1958. The PTJ is the primary judicial police force in the country, charged with the reception of crime reports made by citizens, the investigation of crimes, gathering of evidence and arrest of suspects. In all these tasks, the PTJ is subordinated to the public prosecutor's office. Administratively, the PTJ is attached to the Ministry of the Interior and Justice. The national headquarters are in Caracas, and there is one office in each state capital, with additional offices in some other cities. The PTJ's name was recently changed to the National Directorate of Criminal Investigation. The traffic police (Cuerpo Tecnico de Vigilancia del Transito y Transporte Terrestre), administratively attached to the Ministry of Infrastructure, are responsible for surveillance, preliminary investigation and occasionally arresting suspects, in traffic offenses that involve violations of the criminal law. The state police are responsible for patrol work and public order, arrests (when offenders are caught in the act), and community service. They may also serve as auxiliary judicial police. Each force is regulated by a local Police Code. To further complicate the institutional environment, state police forces are also coordinated by an office in the Ministry of the Interior and Justice that compiles selected statistics and sets guidelines for internal procedures. Beginning in 1990, wealthier municipalities in the country's largest cities set up municipal police forces. By July 2001, there were 77 municipal forces in the country. They are attached to the mayors' offices and regulated by the state's Police Code and by municipal ordinance. With so many different uniformed police forces, there are obviously difficulties in coordination and efficiency. For that reason, since at least 1977 there have been diverse proposals to create a unified national police force. The most recent is the National Police Law, which is currently being debated in the National Assembly. This law would join all uniformed police forces (state, Capital District, municipal), together with the traffic police, into one national force. (Birkbeck) Courts Denmark The independent courts constitute a part of the division of power in Denmark. Generally speaking, cases are dealt with in the first instance by a local or city court; appeals against the judgments of city courts are made to one of the country's two High Courts. A few big cases and cases touching on administrative matters are dealt with by one of the high courts in the first instance. The highest court in Denmark is the Supreme Court, and the Queen appoints judges. (Ministry) The Danish Supreme Court is the highest civil and criminal court responsible for the administration of justice in Denmark. The Kingdom of Denmark, consisting of Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, does not have a single unified judicial system – Denmark has one system, Greenland another and the Faroe Island a third. However, ecisions by the highest courts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands may be appealed to the Danish High Courts. Venezuela Venezuela has three types of main courts: Trial courts: The 395 trial courts are divided into first instance trial courts and instructional criminal courts. In addition, 667 departmental and municipal courts are assigned the lowest level cases. Superior Courts: There are 173 Superior courts that primarily act as interme diate appellate courts. The dispersion of these courts throughout the country is based on population and political needs. Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the court of last resort. It is composed of 15 justices who each serve a nine-year term. This Court is divided into three chambers: civil, criminal, and civil rights. (Salas, Luis) They also have several types of special courts: Military Courts: Military courts exercise a considerable amount of authority since their jurisdiction extends to all crimes committed by members of the armed forces and on-duty police officers. Many persons have criticized this system, viewing it as a barrier to the successful prosecution of human rights abuses committed by the police and military. Military courts extend their jurisdiction to civilians accused of crimes under the military code, for example treason or subversion. Anti-corruption Court: The anti-corruption court (Tribunal de Salvaguardia Del Patrimonio Publico) was established with specific and sometimes extraordinary powers, to investigate and punish corruption. While corruption cases may be tried in the first instance by the traditional court system, these special courts have second instance jurisdiction. They also serve as trial courts for cases involving corruption by high-level officials. Even though their jurisdictional powers are extensive, they have been afforded meager resources to carry out their responsibilities. Family/Juvenile Courts: Another set of courts handle family matters and juvenile cases. Juveniles are processed through special courts and then remanded to juvenile correctional facilities. (Salas) Corrections Denmark In Denmark, the correctional service controls 15 prisons, one institution for inmates needing psychiatric treatment, and 40 local jails. Five of the prisons and the psychiatric institution are closed in that they are secured by an external ring wall as well as by internal precautions like secured buildings, and electronic security systems combined with relatively dense staffing. The staff does not carry arms. Being used as remand detention institutions, the local jails are also closed. The remaining nine prisons are open institutions which actually means that the inmates are physically able to leave the institution. Two of the closed prisons have both male and female inmates. In one of these prisons there is cohabitation between men and women within units. There are also two open prison departments for women. While serving his sentence the inmate is obliged to work for which he is paid a small hourly salary. The prison administration tries to ensure that the working places equate those found in modern society. In order to encourage inmates to educate themselves the same amount is paid to inmates who choose to go to the prison school instead of going to work. The prison provides health care and necessary dental care. Sick inmates will be hospitalized in ordinary hospitals. The policies of the correctional service are governed by the following three principles: A. Normalization. As a starting point the inmate is placed in the open prison closest to his home in order to preserve family contacts and to pave the way for a gradual release from the prison. There must be specific reasons for instituting control of inmates' correspondence. Visits by next-of-kin take place in secluded visiting rooms with a couch. In the open prisons weekend leaves are granted every third week to prisoners with a low risk of recidivism. A prisoner in a closed institution may obtain similar rights to weekend leave when he has served one fourth of his sentence. At some time during incarceration about one third of the prisoners in closed prisons are granted occasional leaves. The total number of leaves per year is about 57,000. More than half of these are so-called work leaves where an inmate leaves the prison to go to work or to take part in educational activities in society. B. Self-administration. The inmate is responsible for his own daily life. Important elements of this approach are that food must be bought and cooked by the inmate to which end he is paid a fixed amount of money per day. The inmate is also responsible for his personal hygiene, clothes' laundry and repair. The prison encourages the inmates to make meaningful use of leisure hours by providing opportunity for sports and other structuralized activities. C. Release on parole and after-care. According to a provision of the Criminal Code more than 90% of the inmates are released on parole after having served two thirds of their sentences. Almost 10% of these will be released after serving between one half and two thirds of the time, due to special grounds. Royal pardon is possible according to the Constitution, but rare. Outside of imprisonment for life which necessitates the use of pardoning, royal pardon is more commonly used in connection with short-term sentences where the convicted cannot endure the prison stay because of severe illness or the like. In such cases the pardon is normally conditioned on the payment of a fine. (Dr. Winslow, Robert) Venezuela Typical penalties in Venezuela include fines, restitution, probation, and incarceration. Some crimes carry mandatory prison sentences which prohibit early release. The death penalty in Venezuela was abolished in the mid 1860s. The prison population in Venezuela is 40% over its stated capacity. Overcrowding is regarded as a primary factor in the high level of violence within prisons, which resulted in an average of 3 prisoner deaths per week in 1992. Venezuela, like many of its Latin American countries, has incorporated the United Nation's â€Å"Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners† in its national legislation. However, a recent human rights director of the Venezuelan Attorney General's Office has criticized the conditions of the nation's prisons. As a consequence of government neglect, the prisoners live in overcrowded and unhealthy quarters, without access to education, and lacking incentives to seek jobs once they are released. (Salas) References Birkbeck, Christopher Venezuela World Fact Book of Criminal Justice Systems http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/bjs/pub/ascii/wfcjsvz. txt CIA: World Fact Book https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/da. html Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela In the United States of America http://www. embavenezus. org/? pagina=kids. venezuela/political. system. tm=Venezuela%20for%20Kids Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark http://www. ambmoskva. um. dk/en/menu/InfoDenmark/danish+political+and+social+affairs/ Ravn, Lene Denmark World Fact Book of Criminal Justice Systems http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/bjs/pub/ascii/wfbcjden. txt Salas, Luis Florida International University Venezuela World Fact Book of Criminal Justice http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/bjs/pub/ascii/wfbcjve n. txt Visit Denmark http://www. visitdenmark. com/uk/en-gb/menu/turist/turistinformation/fakta-az/ Wikipedia www. en. wikipedia. org Dr. Winslow, Robert San Diego State University Crime and Society

Home School vs. Public School Essay

I prefer home schooling over public schooling; which one do you prefer? There are both pros and cons for both Home Schooling and Public Schooling. I am going to explain this all to you in my essay. I personally was home schooled for a few years during middle and high school. All of elementary school and part of middle school I went to a regular school. My reasoning for choosing to be home schooled is I have Agoraphobia which is an anxiety disorder caused by situations where people perceive the environment as being difficult to escape or get help. As soon as I would walk into a class room I would have a panic attack. One thing I liked about public school was being able to play volleyball. I loved playing it for the little bit of time that I was in middle school. Even though I wasn’t really all that great, So I didn’t play very much. That is one con of being home schooled. You cannot play sports affiliated with any school. A pro for public schooling is you have a group environment to learn in with others to help you. On the other hand with home schooling you are on your own. In home schooling you have less choices of curriculum as you would if you were going to public school. You also have more diversity in public school. When going to public school you have a higher student to teacher ratio, now with home schooling there is a small teacher to student ratio. In home schooling you are free to choose your schedule, as in public school your schedule is strict and chosen for you. Public school chooses the curriculum for you. Unlike in home schooling you can choose your own. There are now roughly millions of children being home schooled. Being home schooled teaches students to be independent in their learning choices. Sometimes home schooling can be more expensive than going to public school. Teachers are not always qualified to teach all subjects, and colleges sometimes have stricter admission policies concerning home schooled students. It is also harder to provide social interaction when being home schooled. Like I had stated before I prefer home schooling but everyone has their own opinions. This is the reason why I have enrolled myself into the University of Phoenix online. So that I can have the flexibility of my classes, this way I can work around my everyday life and not miss out when it comes to spending time with my boys. I hope that the information in my essay was helpful to you.

In the Light of the Energy Systems Used During Prolonged

Coursework 2 Name: Mohamed Abdulwahab Exercise metabolism Title: In the light of the energy systems used during prolonged endurance events, critically analyse the nutritional strategies that a marathon runner should adopt before and whilst running a marathon in temperate environmental conditions (16-18oC). 1. Introduction: 1. 1 Energy intake: 1. 2 Fluid intake: 1. 3 Carbohydrate intake: 2. Building energy and fluid: 1. Before competition: 2. During competition: 3. Nutritional recommendation: 3. 0 Summary: 4. 0 Reference: 1. 0 Introduction:The term energy system refers to the body’s ability, or power, to do physical work. The energy system requires to do body work that takes several different forms: mechanical, electrical, light, radiant, and heat (Economos, 1993). Energy system is like matter, which can neither be created nor destroyed (Bortz, 1993). It can only be changed into another form; therefore energy is constant cycle in the body and environment (Nelson, 1993). Potenti al energy is stored energy which is ready to be used. Kinetics energy is active energy which can be used to do work (Burke, 1991). Energy balance n a physical activity requires a base of sound nutrition to supply the substrate fuels, which along with oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) meet widely varying levels of energy demand for body action (Gollan, 1991). Fuel sources are the basic energy nutrition in the diet, primarily carbohydrate and some fat (Read, 1991). Their metabolic products-glucose, glycogen, and fatty acids-provide ready fuel sourced for the chemical energy reactions within cells (Murray, 1998). The main energy compound of the body cells is needed during a marathon run is aerobic system (Horswill, 1998).It has rightly a form of energy currency of the cell. A long-term energy system, when exercising more than 2 minutes is required O2 dependant, or aerobic energy system (Pate, 1992). A constant supply of O2 in the blood is necessary for continued exercise (Branch, 1992). Espe cially cells organelles, the mitochondria are located within each cell, produce large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Hargreaves, 1996). The ATP is produced mainly from glucose and fatty acids and supplies the continued energy needs of the body (Dillo, 1996).When the fuel nutrition becomes depleted during exercise, as an energy demands increase the body burns blood glucose and muscle glycogen as well as reserves from fatty acids to provide energy (Angus, 1996). With prolonged exercise levels of these nutrition fail too low to sustain the body continued demands, fatigue followed and exhaustion threatens (Fabbriao, 1996). A marathon runner, energy system is defined as aerobic capacity, which depends on the body’s ability to deliver and the use of O2 in sufficient quantities to meet the demands of increased level of exercise (Coyle, 1986).O2 uptake increases with exercise intensity until either the demand is net or the ability to supply it is exceeded (Hammert, 1986). T he maximum rate that the body can take in O2, or aerobic capacity is called the Vo2max the maximum uptake volume of O2 (Ivy, 1986). This capacity determines the intensity and duration of exercise that an athlete can perform (Coyle, 1986). A long-distance race requires the sustained production of high rates of energy production, with the typical contribution of aerobic energy system varying according to the duration of the race (Costill, 1985).Aerobic metabolism accounts for the greater majority of the energy cost of long-distance events, especially half-marathon and marathon races (William, 1996). The elite level of long-distance running, particularly in males, is dominated by African runners, are outstanding competitor in half-marathon and marathon events (Wilson, 1996). 1. 1 Energy intake: Endurance athletes are involved in events where there is continuous movement for longer than 30 minutes (Burrin, 1996).Some endurance sports combine periods of slow, continuous movement with per iods of fast, quick burst of movement, and other endurance sports require continuous movement overlong-distances or time periods (Tsintzas, 1995). In the types of activity there is a premium on supplying sufficient energy and fluid to assure that the athlete does not become exhausted or over-heated from the continuous energy burn (Williams, 1995). A failure to supply sufficient energy of the right type will lead to early fatigue and poor athletic performance (Williams, 1995).The goal for the endurance athlete is therefore to establish a workable strategy for supplying sufficient energy and fluids (Williams, 1995). Before and during practice and competition to sustain muscular work for a long-duration and at the highest possible intensity (Wilson, 1995). Aerobic metabolism is the energy system of greatest importance for endurance athletes. In this energy pathway oxygen is used to help transfer phosphorus into new ATP molecules (Burrin, 1995). Aerobic metabolism occurs in the mitochon dria of the cells, where the vast majority of all ATP is produced from the entering acetyl-CoA, (Burrin, 1995).Fast can be converted to acetyl-CoA through a process called beta-oxidative metabolism pathway (Burrin, 1995). This pathway is very oxygen dependant which means that fast can only be burned aerobically (Wilson, 1995). The ability of an athlete to achieve a steady state of oxygen uptake into the cells is a function of how well an athlete is aerobically conditioned (Coggan, 1992). An athlete that frequently trains aerobically is likely to reach a steady state faster than one does not train aerobically (Coggan, 1992).In theory once an athlete reaches a level of oxygen uptake that matches oxygen requirement for the given level of exertion (Coggan, 1992). The exercise could go on for as long as the body’s carbohydrate level and fluid did not reach a critical state (Sherman, 1996). For instance a long-distance runner is in a steady state could continue running provided the runner replaced the carbohydrate and fluid that are used in the activity (Sherman, 1995). Therefore, endurance is enhanced with a periodic intake of carbohydrates and fluid during the activity (Swanson, 1992).Athletes with different levels of conditioning are likely to achieve steady state at different levels of exercise intensity (Sherman, 1995). When athletes are being well-conditioned they might be able to maintain a steady state at a high enough level of exercise intensity to easily win a race (Williams, 1995. In other words, they can go really at a fast paced but still provide enough oxygen to your cell to satisfy your aerobic needs (Swanson, 1992). 1. 2 Fluid: As athletes exercise there is an inevitable loss of body water through sweat (Economos, 1993).The cooling system plus the normal urinary water loss may amount cover 10 litres of daily water loss when exercising in a warm environment (Borts, 1993). In a hot or humid environment water losses may exceed three litres per ho ur, but may be less than 0. 5 litres per hour cool dry environment (Nelson, 1993). Despite the high rates of sweat losses experienced by athletes, most athletes replace on fifty percent of the water that is lost, a behaviour that inevitably leads to progressive dehydration and a decline in performance (Nelson, 1993).Researches have clearly demonstrated that even a slight dehydration of two percent of body weight causes a measureable decrease in athletic performance (Borts, 1993). Therefore, when athletes take steps to satisfy fluid requirements, they are helping to guarantee optimal athletic performance (Economos, 1993). 1. 3 Carbohydrate: Athletes require carbohydrate during both low and high intensity activities (Burke, 1991). When carbohydrate stores are depleted the athlete quickly becomes fatigued and performance drops dramatically (Gollan, 1991).However, since the storage level of carbohydrate is relatively low gen compared fat stores; athletes must make a conscious effort to replace carbohydrate at every opportunity (Read, 1991). When having high levels of stored carbohydrate (glycogen) and consuming carbohydrates during exercise that last up to an hour or more are well-established techniques for optimizing athletic endurance (Murray, 1998). Consuming carbohydrate during exercise helps to maintain blood sugar (glucose) and insulin, which encourages sugar uptake by working muscles (Horswill, 1998).This helps to increase the muscular metabolism of carbohydrates and also helps to assure that carbohydrates are not depleted during exercise (Horswill, 1998). The concentration of carbohydrate consumed early during endurance running may influence the degree to which the athlete gets gastrointestinal (GI), discomfort (Murray, 1998). It was found that a 5. 5 percent (13 gram of carbohydrate per 8 ounces of fluid), carbohydrate solution produced the same level (relative low) of GI distress as plain water (Pate, 1992). A 6. percent (18 gram of carbohydrate per 8 ou nces of fluid), solution, on the other hand, doubled the incident of distress when athletes were asked to perform the same exercise (Branch, 1992). In addition, only the 5. 5 percent carbohydrate solution imparted a significant improvement in performance (Branch, 1992). In a study of marathon running performance, that are running over 26 miles, were asked to consume either water, a 5. 5 percent carbohydrate solution or a 6. 9 percent carbohydrate solution on three occasions (Pate, 1992).The fastest times were recorded when they consumed the 5. 5percent carbohydrate solution, while consuming the 6. 9 percent solution resulted in times that were similar to consuming plain water (Hargreaves, 1996). Although, athletes have a tremendous need for carbohydrate, trying to provide too much too fast causes difficulties and may detract from performance (Dillo, 1996). Therefore, it appears clear that having a carbohydrate containing beverages during exercise is a very good thing to do (Angus, 1 996).Resynthesis of glycogen following activity is also important, since glycogen reserves are severely depleted following activity lasting an hour or longer (Fabbrioa, 1996). The efficiency of glycogen resynthesis is dependent on several factors, including: (1) the timing of carbohydrate intake, (2) the amount of carbohydrate consumed, (3) the type of carbohydrate consumed, and (4), the degree to which muscles has been damaged during the exercise (Fabbrioa, 1996). 2. 0 Building energy and fluid: The importance of building and maintaining energy reserves to support endurance exercise is well-established (Angus, 1996).It is very clear that endurance athlete who begins competing with more stored carbohydrates have more available at the end of the competition (Coyle, 1996). This difference alone may be enough to determine the winner. In addition, athletes who are better hydrates during competition perform better than those who are less well-hydrated (Coyle, 1996). Having optimal carboh ydrates and fluid intake does not happen automatically. It is something that must occur with foresight and planning (Angus, 1996). 2. 1 Before competition: When consuming carbohydrates prior to exercise, there is improved performance.The general recommendation is for athletes to consume between 800 to 1200 calories during the hours that precede competition (Costill, 1985). Foods consumed prior to competition should be foods that have been consumed without difficult prior to training (Costill, 1985). Trying to improve carbohydrate status before a competition by trying out new foods, like gels or sports drinks is an almost guaranteed formula for competitive disaster (Costill, 1985). Consumption of fluids prior to competition is also important and since glycogen storage requires additional fluids carbohydrate consumption should lways take place with substantial fluid intake (William, 1996). Since it is common for athletes to drink only when thirsty a conscious effort should be make to consume fluids even when not thirsty (William, 1996). Getting and staying well-hydrated may be the single most important thing athlete can do to assure good athletic performance (Wilson, 1996). Since it is almost impossible to adequately replace all fluids lost during training or competition it is useful for athletes to enter the exercise in a well-hydrated state (Burrin, 1996).It is impossible to become well-hydrated during exercise if athlete enters the exercise poorly hydrated to begin with (Burrin, 1996). Assuming that ample fluids have been consumed during the day leading up to the re-competition or practice athletes should consume an additional 10 to 13 gram of fluid approximately two hours before the exercise begins (Wilson, 1996). After this fluids should be consumed every 15 to 30 minutes to maintain prior to exercise (William, 1996). The athlete will know if you’ve adequately hydrated yourself by checking on the colour of the athlete urine (Tsintzas, 1995).Dark urin e suggests that athlete is not well-hydrated, while clear urine suggests that athlete is well-hydrated (Stanzas, 1995). Using sports beverages (lucazad) prior to exercise is useful because they provide the two things athletes need the most: carbohydrates and fluids (William, 1995). Since carbohydrate is typically the limiting energy substance (that will run out before fat or protein runs out) in exercise (William, 1995). When starting exercise with more of it is in the tissues should aid exercise endurance (William, 1995).In low-intensity but long-duration exercise, fat may be the primarily fuel, but fat requires carbohydrates to burn completely (Singh, 1995). In either case, when carbohydrates (glycogen stores and blood glucose) are depleted, exercise performance is dramatically reduced (Wilson, 1995). This basis behind carbohydrate loading is to put as much carbohydrate in the tissue as they can hold (Wilson, 1995). 2. During competition: A marathon race where fluid are available at regular intervals, the athlete should take full advantage of each fluid station and consume fluid (Burrin, 1995).Since water is constantly being lost, frequent and regular consumption of fluid helps to maintain the body water level (Burrin, 1995). To understand how much fluid an athlete needs to consume during practice or competition, a log should be maintained with the amount of fluid consumed and the beginning and ending weight of the athletes (Sherman, 1995). If an athlete consumes 26 gram during practice and weighs 26 gram less at the end of practice than at the beginning this athletes should learn to consume an additional 26 gram of fluid during practice or competition (Sherman, 1995).Consumption of fluids that contain carbohydrates is important during exercise or competition and properly designed sport beverages can benefit in providing both fluid and carbohydrates quickly (Coggan, 1992). Carbohydrate solution of between 5 and 6 percent delivers both the carbohydrate and th e fluid quickly (Swanson, 1992). A higher carbohydrate concentration slows delivery to the muscles by delaying gastric emptying and may increase the risk of gut upset (Swanson, 1992). A small amount of sodium helps drive the desire to drink and in so doing helps to assure that the athlete stays better hydrated (Coggan, 1992).Sodium may also benefit in getting the water and carbohydrate absorbed more quickly as well as helps to maintain blood volume (Economos, 1993). Maintaining of blood volume is an important predictor of athletic performance (Economos, 1993). There is some evidence that hyponatremia (low level of blood sodium), which results from large losses of sodium in sweat that goes unreplaced, occurs endurance and ultra-endurance events (Borts, 1993). This is a rare but a serious condition that may result in comas, or death (Nelson, 1993). The beverage should be taste good to the athlete.The taste sensation may be altered during exercise so there is no guarantee that a fluid, athlete enjoys drinking while exercising. Make sure that an athlete tries different flavours during exercise to determine what is best liked. The carbohydrate should be from a combination of glucose and sucrose. Beverages containing predominantly fructose increase the risk of creating gut upset. 2. 3 Nutritional recommendation: There are several rules of nutrition that apply here. Among them is the idea of the need to consume a wide range of variety of foods to assure that the body is exposed to all of the essential nutrients (Burke, 1991).On the backside of this rule, there is another benefit. By consuming a wide range of variety of foods, athletes can avoid being exposed to any potentially toxic substances that are more prevalent in some foods (Gollan, 1991). Therefore, eating a wide range of variety of foods is a good nutritional rule to live by (Read, 1991). Another rule is the idea that it is possible to eat too much of something, even if athletes think it’s good for th em (Read, 1991). Learning to balance the diet through variety will help ensure the body of both proper maintenance and adequate nutrient intake (Gollan, 1991). 3. Summary: In general, athletes with long training schedules should focus on the consumption of diets that are high in carbohydrate and should develop a drinking habit that frequently delivers fluids to the body. While fats, constitute a major proportion of burned energy for endurance (aerobic) activities the storage capacity for fat is relatively high for even the leanest athletes. The storage capacity for carbohydrate, however, is limited. Since fats require some carbohydrate to be completely burned, the limited storage capacity for carbohydrate cam limit the body ability to burn fat during exercise.To overcome this limitation athlete should be constantly vigilant to keep body stored of carbohydrate at maximal levels before activity begins and should replace carbohydrate during activity throughout whatever means are availa ble. A failure to supply suffienct carbohydrate before and during endurance activity will significantly reduce athletic performance. 4. 0 Reference: †¢ Economos, D. , Borts, Z. , and Nelson, R. 1993. Nutritional practices of elite athletes. Sports. Med. 16:383. †¢ Burke, L. , Gollan, R. , and Read, R. 1991. Dietary intake and food use of groups of elite Australian male athletes. Int. J. Sports Nutr. 1:378. †¢ Murray, R. and Horswill, A. , 1998. Nutrition requirements for competitive sports. In nutrition in exercise and sport, 3ed. 521-558. †¢ Pate, R. , and Branch, D. 1992. Training for endurance sport. Med. Sci. Sports Exer. 24:S340. †¢ Hargreaves, M. , Dillo, P. , Angus, D. , and Fabbraio, M. 1996. Effect of fluid ingestion on muscle metabolism during pro-longed exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 80:363-6. †¢ Coyle, E. , Coggan, A. , Hammert, M. , and Ivy, L. 1986. Muscle glycogen utilization during pro-longed strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J. App l. Physiol. 61:165-172. †¢ Costill, D. 1985. Carbohydrate nutrition before, during, and after exercise.Fed. Proc. 44:364. †¢ William, C. , Wilson, W. , and Burrin, J. 1996. Influence of carbohydrate supplementation early in exercise on endurance running capacity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 28:1373-1379. †¢ Tsintzas, O. , Williams, C. , Singh, R. , Wilson, W. , and Burrin, J. 1995. Influence of carbohydrate-electrolyte drink on marathon running performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 70: 154-6. †¢ Sherman, M. 1995. Metabolism of sugars and physical performance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62:228S. †¢ Coggan, A. , and Swanson, S. , 1992. Nutritional manipulations before and during endurance exercise: effects on performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24:S331.